duo art

Battle of Fleurus
Part of the Thirty Years’ War
La victoria de Fleurus
Date August 29, 1622 Location Fleurus, present-day Belgium Result Spanish victory
Belligerents
Margravate of Baden-Durlach Brunswick	Spain
Commanders
Graf von Mansfeld Christian of Brunswick	Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba
Strength
8,000 infantry 6,000 cavalry 11 guns	6,000 infantry 2,000 cavalry 4 guns
Casualties and losses
5,000 dead, wounded, or captured	300 dead and 900 wounded

The Battle of Fleurus of August 29, 1622 was fought between a Spanish army, and the Protestant Powers of the Holy Roman Empire in the Thirty Years’ War. The bloody struggle left the Protestants mangled and the Spanish masters of the field.

Campaign

After failing to relieve Heidelberg, besieged by Tilly’s army, Frederick V, Elector Palatine, decided to disband his army. On July 13 1622 the contract was cancelled and the unemployed army of Mansfeld and Christian of Brunswick was hired by the Dutch to help in the relief of the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom.
The Protestant army departed from Alsace and at a fast pace crossed Northern France, entering the Spanish Low Countries through Hainaut.

The Spanish Army of Flanders, under command of Ambrosio Spinola, engaged in the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom, a town on the estuary of the Schelde River, was in a dangerous position; while a relieving Dutch army was being assembled to the East at Breda he faced an invasion from the South. He was in danger of being trapped between the two enemy armies, his line of retreat towards Antwerpen blocked by the invading German army. Gonzalo Fernandez de Cordoba, commander of the Spanish army in the Palatinate, was recalled in a hurry to stop that army. Cordoba marched through Luxembourg and the difficult terrain of the Ardennes, and was able to intercept Mansfeld and Brunswick in the border of Brabant.

The Protestant army advance guard met Spanish cavalry scouts on August 27 and the 29th they found Cordoba’s army entrenched. Cordoba, much weaker in cavalry, had assumed a blocking position north of the town of Mellet, near Fleurus, with flanks supported by woods. The Protestant commanders deployed their army to try to break through the Spanish position.

Armies

Horse Arquebussiers, unlike Dragoons, fired on horseback, and were a Light Cavalry much favoured by the Spanish Army

SPANISH ARMY
Right Wing
Commander: Gauchier
800 commanded musketeers (in the woods)
5 Cavalry Squadrons in two lines

Center
Commander: Cordoba
Several units brigaded into 4 Escuadrones deployed in a single line
1st Escuadron
Tercio of Naples (16 companies, Spaniards)
Tercio Balanzon (2 companies, Burgundians)
Tercio Verdugo (15 companies, Walloons)
2nd Escuadron
Isenburg Regiment (10 companies, Lower Rhine Germans)
Emden Regiment (1 company, Northern Germans)
4 Free Companies (French)
3rd Escuadron
Tercio of Capua (14 companies, Italians)
4th Escuadron
Fugger Regiment (7 companies, Germans)

Left Wing
Commander: De Sylva
4 Cavalry Squadrons in two lines

The Spanish cavalry was composed of 53 small companies, assembled into ad hoc squadrons. There were 29 cuirassier companies and 24 arquebusier companies. All except 4 veteran cuirassier companies had been raised in 1621 and 1622. They were composed by Walloon recruits and they had performed poorly at the Battle of Wimpfen, so Cordoba was obviously concerned about the flanks of his army.
The Spanish infantry was of mixed quality, the Tercio of Naples was an elite unit that traced back its history to 1567, it had lived up to its reputation at the Battle of Wimpfen with a superb performance, and Cordoba placed it in the post of honour to the right, blocking the road. Fugger Regiment and Verdugo Tercio were also experienced units, veterans of the Bohemian campaign, the rest of the units were garrison troops of lesser quality mobilized by Cordoba to fill his command.

Cuirassier, this Heavy Cavalry formed the backbone of the Protestant Army

PROTESTANT ARMY
Right Wing
Commander: Streiff
10 Companies of Cavalry deployed in two lines

Center
Commander: Mansfeld
26 understrength Infantry regiments brigaded into 8 composite Battalions deployed in a checkerboard double line

Left Wing
Commander: Brunswick
50 Companies of Cavalry deployed in two lines

The Protestant army had left Sedan with 25.000 men, but the swift march had reduced it to 14.000, many stragglers killed by angry Walloon peasants
Protestant cavalry was highly motivated and of good quality, many of the recruits were members of the German lesser nobility, and most were heavily armoured cuirassiers. The infantry was of much lesser material, poorly equipped, it had suffered the most in the march..

The Battle

After a short cannonade, Mansfeld ordered a general advance. Some gaps opened up in the poorly drilled German infantry, and De Sylva attacked an exposed flank, routing one Battalion. However, Streiff counterattacked, the Walloon cavalry was wrong footed and suffered considerable damage from enemy pistol fire. De Sylva’s cavalry took refuge behind the baggage wagons, while Streiff turned on the Spanish infantry, but without much success.

On the Protestant left, Brunswick had massed most of his cavalry, Cordoba’s deployment made it impossible to outflank his position, but Brunswick hoped to overwhelm the Spanish by a massed frontal assault. The first charge was repulsed by Gauchier’s cavalry, but Brunswick reordered his command and launched a second charge, the first line was repulsed again but the second line succeeded in pushing back the Walloon Horse. Brunswick turned then against the Spanish infantry, but his own infantry failed to adequately support the attack, the Tercio of Naples held its ground, and murderous enfilade fire from musketeers ambushed in the nearby woods sent the Protestant cavalry reeling back in disorder. In a desperate final charge, Brunswick was wounded, and his cavalry, demoralised, finally fell back. After five hours of fighting, Mansfeld ordered a general retreat, it was midday and he intended to take the road through Liege around Cordoba to reach Breda.

The Spanish army was too tired to follow the enemy. However, next day, Cordoba sent Gauchier with the cavalry, he found the Protestant army strung along the road. The Protestant cavalry fled without putting up much of a fight, leaving the infantry to its fate. In march column, unable to deploy in a defensive formation, the infantry was cut to pieces. Gauchier also captured the artillery and the army baggage. The Protestant army had been all but destroyed.

Aftermath

Brunswick and Mansfeld’s remnants, about 3.000 cavalry, joined finally the Dutch army at Breda after making a detour. Spinola was compelled to lift the siege of Bergen-op-Zoom, but as he was no longer in danger of being cut off, he did it at leisure, and he was able to secure his siege train and his entire baggage train.
Brunswick and Mansfeld only served for three months in Dutch pay, their unruly bands had no place in the disciplined Dutch army. Meanwhile, Tilly’s army easily overran the Palatinate.

Notes

1. ^ Guthrie Battles of the Thirty Years War p.100 47 days of continuous march.
2. ^ Bedmar in Canovas del Castillo, Estudios
3. ^ Guthrie Battles of the Thirty Years War p.95-101
4. ^ Bedmar in Canovas del Castillo, Estudios
5. ^ Guthrie Battles of the Thirty Years War p.109
6. ^ Haynin, Histoire
7. ^ Bedmar in Canovas del Castillo, Estudios
8. ^ Mesa Nördlingen p.12
9. ^ Guthrie Battles of the Thirty Years War p.105

References

• Cánovas del Castillo, Antonio. Estudios del reinado de Felipe IV vol. II (Madrid 1888) ( letter from the Marques of Bedmar to King Philip IV published here)
• Crosse, William, fl. 1630, supposed author. Belgiaes troubles, and triumphs. Wherein are truly and historically related all the most famous occurrences, which have happened betweene the Spainards, and Hollanders in these last foure yeares warres of the Netherlands, with other accidents, which have had relation unto them, as the battles of Fleurie, and Statloo, the losse of Gulicke and Breda, the sieges of Sluce and Bergen, the conquest of St. Salvador in Brasilia, and the taking of Goffe by Charles Lambert, &c. London, Printed by A. Matthewes, and I. Norton, 1625
• Fernández Alvarez, Manuel. Don Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba y la guerra de sucessión de Mantua y del Monferrato (1627-1629). Madrid, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Escuela de Historia Moderna, 1955
• Guthrie, William P. Battles of the Thirty Years War, From White Mountain to Nördlingen 1618-1635 (Westport 2002) ISBN 0-313-32028-4
• Haynin, Louis de, seigneur du Cornet, 1582-1640. Histoire generalle des guerres de Savoie, de Boheme, du Palatinat, et Pays-Bas, depuis l’an 1616. jusques celuy de 1627. inclus. IU, RBC x943.03 H33h (Douai, 1628).

Mesa, Eduardo de, Nördlingen 1634 (Madrid 2003) ISBN 978-84-96170-54-4

1797

sink gauge

Please expand this article with text translated from the corresponding article in German Wikipedia. (February 2009) After translating, {{Translated|de|Heubach}} must be added to the talk page to ensure copyright compliance. Translation instructions  · Translate via Google · Involve your language class

Heubach
Heubach
Administration
Country	Germany
State	Baden-Württemberg
Admin. region	Stuttgart
District	Ostalbkreis
Town subdivisions	2 Stadtteile
Mayor	Klaus Maier
Basic statistics
Area	25.81 km2 (9.97 sq mi)
Elevation	466 m  (1529 ft)
Population	10,105  (31 December 2006)
- Density	392 /km2 (1,014 /sq mi)
Other information
Time zone	CET/CEST (UTC+1/+2)
Licence plate	AA
Postal code	73540
Area code	07173
Website	www.heubach.de Coordinates: 48°47?17?N 09°56?00?E? / ?48.78806°N 9.933333°E? / 48.78806; 9.933333

Heubach is a town in the Ostalbkreis district, in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is situated 10 km east of Schwäbisch Gmünd, and 13 km southwest of Aalen. The town is located at the edge of the Rems River Valley and at the base of the Swabian Alps. Heubach is located in the Swabian region of Germany and many residents speak the Swabian German dialect.

History

In 1234 Heubach was first mentioned in connection with a knight Hainricus de Hôbach. On the Rosenstein mountain is the Rosenstein castle ruins, which was first mentioned in 1282. At the end of the 13th century, Heubach and Rosenstein came into the possession of the count of Oettingen, then from 1358 to the possession of the counts of Württemberg. After the victory of Emperor Charles IV against Württemberg’s Count “Eberhard the Greiner” in 1360 Heubach and Rosenstein fell to the Kingdom of Bohemia, however it was transferred back to Württemberg in 1377. In 1413 it was transferred to the Lords of Woellwarth fiefdom. Georg von Woellwarth left Castle Rosenstein in 1524 and built a castle in Heubach. In 1579 Duke Ludwig von Wuerttemberg purchased Heubach and Rosenstein and raised the official Heubach city. The town hall was built in 1581. In the Thirty Years’ War, the population fell to 10 people, but at the endeavor of Württemberg’s government it was rapidly rebuilt and resettled. On 25 April 1807 the Oberamt Heubach was merged with the Oberamt Gmünd. With the municipal reform from 1938 Oberamt Gmünd was in the district (Landkreis) Oberamt Schwäbisch Gmünd. With the district reform of 1973 Heubach is now in the Ostalbkreis district.

At Heubach, there is a famous castle ruin, called Rosenstein castle ruins and a telecommunication tower of reinforced concrete.

Heubach and Rosenstein abt. 1900

There are also a number of other places called Heubach, including Heubach (Rhön) in the community of Kalbach in the district of Fulda in Hesse, Germany.

There is one public Freibad(outdoor pool) and one public Hallenbad(indoor pool) in Heubach.The 4 main streets are Bobinger Str,Mogglinger Str,Lauterner Str. and Gmunder Str.

Religion

In addition to a Protestant and a Roman Catholic church there is also a Baptist and Jehovah’s Witnesses congregation

Politics

Heubach is the seat of the Rosenstein municipal association. The municipalities of Bartholomä, Böblingen on the Rems , Heuchlingen, and Mögglingen are members.

Twin Cities

Laxou in France since 1964 Waidhofen an der Thaya in Austria since 1982 Lauscha in Thuringia, Germany since 1990

Business

Heubach is home of Triumph International

Heubach is the home of Fritz Reu GmbH & Co. Metallwarenfabrik, maker of metal souvenirs, trinkets, automobile badges, and coins.

Closely connected with the history of the city is the development of the Heubacher Brewery also known as the Hirchbrauerei Heubach. Chroniclers indicate that the brewery history goes back to the 1600’s, but the first documented proof indicates 1725.

Other

A nickname for the citizens of Heubach is “Mondstupfler”. This goes back to an ancient legend in which a resident of Heubach went up to the top of the Rosenstein mountain and went to fetch the moon from the heavens with a long pole.

Mondstupfler

External links

• Heubach Official website (German)
• Triumph International Official website (English)
• Fritz Reu GmbH & Co. Metallwarenfabrik Official Website (German)
• Heubacher Brewery Official Website

boats

Andrzej Chwalba (right).

Andrzej Chwalba (born 1949) is a Polish historian. Professor of history at the Jagiellonian University (since 1995), the university’s prorector of didactics (1999-2002), head the Institute of Social and Religious History of Europe in 19th and 20th century. He was former deacon and prodeacon of Department of History.

He has been a member of the Polish Historical Society,the Historical Commission of the Polish Academy of Science and several foreign historical societies (Intern. Tagung der Historik, Europ. Community Liaison Committee of Historians, Centre de recherches d’histoire des mouvement sociaux et du syndicalisme), and editor in chief of Alternatywy (1985-1989); Arka (1994-1995). He is a member of the editorial board of Historyka.

He is also Chairman of the Organisational Committee of the Congress.

His works are centred on social and religious history of Europe in 19th and 20th century. He has published over 120 pieces, including several books.

Works

• Socjali?ci polscy wobec kultu religijnego (1989)
• Sacrum i rewolucja (1992)
• Józef Pi?sudski historyk wojskowo?ci (1993)
• Imperium korupcji w Rosji i Królestwie Polskim w latach 1861-1917 (1995)
• Czasy “Solidarno?ci”. Francuscy zwi?zkowcy i NSZZ “S” 1980-90 (1997)
• Polacy w s?u?bie Moskali (1999)
• S?ownik Historii Polski 1939-1948 (1994,1996) - coauthor
• Kalendarium Dziejów Polski (1999) (editor)

canon photo paper plus

William “Wally” Webb (born November 19, 1882, date of death unknown) was a British bantamweight boxer who competed in the early twentieth century.

He won a bronze medal in boxing at the 1908 Summer Olympics losing against John Condon in the semi-finals.

ashton fire trucks

radio control

Looking from Smith Square

Looking from Great Peter Street

Lord North Street is a short street of Georgian terraced housing running between Smith Square and Great Peter Street in Westminster, the political heartland of British government. As such they have always commanded high fees and featured in many dramatic storylines. Past residents include the socialite Sibyl Colefax, founder of the Colefax and Fowler fabrics and wallpaper company , and Harold Wilson, four times Prime minister who in November 1974 alleged that renegade MI5 operatives had broken into his home . More recent residents include Jonathan Aitken and Theresa Gorman.

red envelope

Internet slang (Internet language, Internet Short-hand, netspeak, or chatspeak) is slang that Internet users have popularized and, in many cases, coined. Such terms often originate with the purpose of saving keystrokes, and many people use the same abbreviations in text messages, instant messaging, and Twitter, or Facebook . Acronyms, keyboard symbols, and shortened words are often methods of abbreviation in Internet slang.

In other cases, new dialects of Internet slang such as leet or Lolspeak develop as ingroup memes rather than time savers. In leet speak, letters may be replaced by characters of similar appearance. For this reason, leet is often written as l33t or 1337.

Origins of internet slang

In 1975, Raphael Finkel at Stanford compiled a collection, the Jargon File, of hacker slang from technical cultures such as the MIT AI Lab, the Stanford AI Lab (SAIL), and others of the old ARPANET AI/LISP/PDP-10 communities. Two items on this list in current use as internet slang are “flame” and “loser”. By 1990 the Jargon File had been enriched with examples of shorthand used in talk mode between two terminals (for example, “BTW”, “FYI”, and “TNX”) as well as some slang expressions in use on Usenet and new commercial networks like Compuserve (for example, “LOL”, “ROTF”, and “AFK”.)

A Computerworld article discussing the origin of some current web slang terms cites a still-online Fidonet article from 1989, which displays emoticons in addition to all-caps shortcuts like “LOL” and “BRB”.

Spread of internet slang beyond computer-mediated communication

Many items of internet jargon cross from computer-mediated communication to face-to-face communication. For example, The New York Times collected “buzzwords of 2008″ include “FAIL”, “longphoto” (a term coined by Flickr for videos less than 90 seconds long), and various terms starting with “tw-” inspired by the web service Twitter.

Teenagers now sometimes use internet acronyms in spoken communication as well as in written, for example, ROFL (pronounced /?ro?f?l/ or Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)” class=”IPA”>/?r?f?l/) and LOL (pronounced International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)” class=”IPA”>/?lo?l/, /?l?l/, or /??lo???l/). David Crystal says that the crossover from written slang to speech is “a brand new variety of language evolving, invented really by young people, within five years”.

Other commentators disagree, saying that these new words, being abbreviations for existing, long-used, phrases, don’t “enrich” anything; they just shorten it. Furthermore, linguist Geoffrey K. Pullum of the University of Edinburgh states that even if interjections such as LOL and ROTFL were to become very common in spoken English, their “total effect on language” would be “utterly trivial”.

Laccetti (professor of humanities at Stevens Institute of Technology) and Molsk, in their essay entitled The Lost Art of Writing, are critical of the acronyms, predicting reduced chances of employment for students who use such acronyms, stating that, “Unfortunately for these students, their bosses will not be ‘lol’ when they read a report that lacks proper punctuation and grammar, has numerous misspellings, various made-up words, and silly acronyms.” Fondiller and Nerone in their style manual assert that “professional or business communication should never be careless or poorly constructed” whether one is writing an electronic mail message or an article for publication, and warn against the use of smileys and these abbreviations, stating that they are “no more than e-mail slang and have no place in business communication”.

Yunker and Barry in a study of online courses and how they can be improved through podcasting have found that these acronyms, and emoticons as well, are “often misunderstood” by students and are “difficult to decipher” unless their meanings are explained in advance. They single out the example of “ROFL” as not obviously being the abbreviation of “rolling on the floor laughing” (emphasis added). Haig singles out LOL as one of the three most popular initialisms in Internet slang, alongside BFN (”bye for now”) and IMHO (”in my humble opinion”). He describes these acronyms, and the various initialisms of Internet slang in general, as convenient, but warns that “as ever more obscure acronyms emerge they can also be rather confusing”. Bidgoli likewise states that these initialisms “save keystrokes for the sender but might make comprehension of the message more difficult for the receiver” and that “lang may hold different meanings and lead to misunderstandings especially in international settings”; he advises that they be used “only when you are sure that the other person knows the meaning”.

A 2003 study of college students by Naomi Baron found that the use of initialisms even in computer-mediated communication (CMC), specifically in instant messaging, was actually lower than she had expected. The students “used few abbreviations, acronyms, and emoticons”. The spelling was “reasonably good” and contractions were “not ubiquitous”. Out of 2,185 transmissions, there were 90 initialisms in total, only 31 CMC-style abbreviations, and 49 emoticons. Out of the 90 initialisms, 76 were occurrences of “lol”.

Linguistic analysis

Shortis observes that ROTFL is a means of “annotating text with stage directions”. Hueng, in discussing these acronyms in the context of performative utterances, points out the difference between telling someone that one is laughing out loud and actually laughing out loud: “The latter response is a straightforward action. The former is a self-reflexive representation of an action: I not only do something but also show you that I am doing it. Or indeed, I may not actually laugh out loud but may use the locution ‘LOL’ to communicate my appreciation of your attempt at humor.”

David Crystal notes that use of LOL is not necessarily genuine, just as the use of smiley faces or grins is not necessarily genuine, posing the rhetorical question “How many people are actually ‘laughing out loud’ when they send LOL?”. Franzini concurs, stating that there is as yet no research that has determined the percentage of people who are actually laughing out loud when they write “LOL”.

Bonnie Ruberg, in an article concerning internet linguistics shares the following insight, “In a world of text communication where real-life facial expressions and vocal intonations are impossible, abbreviations like “lol” sacrifice their real meaning in order to articulate our nuanced intentions. They, in and of themselves, become glib, cliche — while at the same time almost necessary for expression online.”

Victoria Clarke, in her analysis of telnet talkers, states that capitalization is important when people write “LOL”, and that “a user who types LOL may well be laughing louder than one who types lol“, and opines that “these standard expressions of laughter are losing force through overuse”. Egan describes LOL, ROTFL, and other initialisms as helpful as long as they are not overused. He recommends against their use in business correspondence because the recipient may not be aware of their meanings, and because in general neither they nor emoticons are (in his view) appropriate in such correspondence. June Hines Moore shares that view. So, too, does Lindsell-Roberts, who gives the same advice of not using them in business correspondence, “or you won’t be LOL”.

See also

• List of internet slang (Wiktionary)
• Cyberculture
• Internet linguistics
• Internet meme
• Leet
• Slang

References

1. ^ Jargon file, version 2.1.1 (draft) 12 JUN 1990
2. ^ FidoNews (May 8, 1989)
3. ^ Computerworld (November 7, 2008) “FWIW — The origins of ‘Net shorthand”
4. ^ Mark Leibovich and Grant Barrett (December 21, 2008). “The Buzzwords of 2008″. The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/ref/weekinreview/buzzwords2008.html?partner=permalink&exprod=permalink. 
5. ^ NPR “OMG: IM Slang Is Invading Everyday English” by Neda Ulaby (February 18, 2006
6. ^ Neda Ulaby (February 18, 2006). “OMG: IM Slang Is Invading Everyday English”. Digital Culture. National Public Radio. http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5221618. 
7. ^ ^{a b} Kristen Philipkoski (February 22, 2005). “The Web Not the Death of Language”. Wired News. http://www.wired.com/news/culture/0,1284,66671,00.html. 
8. ^ Geoffrey K. Pullum (January 23, 2005). “English in Deep Trouble?”. Language Log. http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/001829.html. Retrieved on 2007-05-03. 
9. ^ Silvio Laccetti and Scott Molsk (September 6, 2003). “Cost of poor writing no laughing matter”. Atlanta Journal-Constitution. http://www.ajc.com/opinion/content/opinion/0603/08special_writing.html. 
10. ^ Stevens Institute of Technology (October 22, 2003). Article co-authored by Stevens professor and student garners nationwide attention from business, academia. Press release. http://howe.stevens.edu/babbio/pressroom/20031022-368-writingoped.html. 
11. ^ Shirley H. Fondiller and Barbara J. Nerone (2007). Health Professionals Style Manual. Springer Publishing Company. pp. 98. ISBN 0826102077. 
12. ^ Frank Yunker and Stephen Barry. “Threaded Podcasting: The Evolution of On-Line Learning”. Dan Remenyi Proceedings of the International Conference on e-Learning, Université du Québec à Montréal, 22-23 June 2006: 516, Academic Conferences Limited. ISBN 1905305222. 
13. ^ Matt Haig (2001). E-Mail Essentials: How to Make the Most of E-Communications. Kogan Page. pp. 89. ISBN 0749435763. 
14. ^ Hossein Bidgoli (2004). The Internet Encyclopedia. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 277. ISBN 0471222011. 
15. ^ Naomi Baron (February 18, 200r). “Instant Messaging by American College Students: A Case Study in Computer-Mediated Communication”. American Association for the Advancement of Science. http://www.american.edu/tesol/Baron-AAAS-IM%20by%20American%20College%20Students.pdf. 
16. ^ Tim Shortis (2001). The Language of ICT. Routledge. pp. 60. ISBN 0415222753. 
17. ^ Jiuan Hueng (2003). “The emergence of pure consciousness: The Theatre of Virtual Selves in the age of the Internet”. in Peter D. Hershock, M. T. Stepaniants, and Roger T. Ames. Technology and Cultural Values: On the Edge of the Third Millennium. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 561. ISBN 0824826477. 
18. ^ David Crystal (September 20, 2001). Language and the Internet. Cambridge University Press. pp. 34. ISBN 0-521-80212-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=cnhnO0AO45AC&printsec=frontcover. 
19. ^ Louis R. Franzini (2002). Kids Who Laugh: How to Develop Your Child’s Sense of Humor. Square One Publishers, Inc.. pp. 145–146. ISBN 0757000088. 
20. ^ Ruberg, Bonnie, “Naked in a Lawn Chair, LOL”
21. ^ Victoria Clarke (January 30, 2002). “Internet English: an analysis of the variety of language used on Telnet talkers” (PDF). http://www.american.edu/lfs/tesol/2003%20Paper–Lg%20of%20the%20Internet.pdf. 
22. ^ Michael Egan. Email Etiquette. Cool Publications Ltd. pp. 32,57–58. ISBN 1844811182. 
23. ^ June Hines Moore (2007). Manners Made Easy for Teens. B&H Publishing Group. pp. 54. ISBN 0805444599. 
24. ^ Sheryl Lindsell-Roberts. Strategic Business Letters and E-Mail. Houghton Mifflin. pp. 289. ISBN 0618448330. 

mb quart dkh169

Philip IV the Fair
King of France and Navarre Count of Champagne
Reign	5 October 1285 – 29 November 1314
Coronation	6 January 1286, Reims
Predecessor	Philip III
Successor	Louis X
Spouse	Joan I of Navarre
Issue
Louis X Philip V Charles IV Isabelle, Queen of England
Father	Philip III
Mother	Isabella of Aragon
Born	April–June 1268 Fontainebleau, France
Died	29 November 1314 (aged 46) Fontainebleau, France
Burial	Saint Denis Basilica

Philip IV (April–June 1268 – November 29, 1314), called the Fair (French: le Bel), son and successor of Philip III, reigned as King of France from 1285 until his death. He was the husband of Joan I of Navarre, by virtue of which he was King of Navarre (as Philip I) and Count of Champagne from 1284 to 1305. The nickname Philip “the Fair” or “the Handsome” comes from his appearance; it had nothing to do with his actions as king.

Youth

A member of the House of Capet, Philip was born at the Palace of Fontainebleau at Seine-et-Marne, the son of King Philip III and Isabella of Aragon. Philip was nicknamed the Fair (le Bel) because of his handsome appearance, but his inflexible personality gained him other epithets, from friend and foe alike. His fierce opponent Bernard Saisset, bishop of Pamiers, said of him, “He is neither man nor beast. He is a statue.”

His education was guided by Guillaume d’Ercuis, the almoner of his father.

As prince, just before his father’s death, he negotiated the safe passage of the royal family out of Aragon after the unsuccessful Aragonese Crusade.

Consolidation of the royal demesne

As a king, Philip was determined to strengthen the monarchy at any cost. He relied, more than any of his predecessors, on a professional bureaucracy of legalists. Because to the public he kept aloof and left specific policies, especially unpopular ones, to his ministers, he was called a “useless owl” by his contemporaries. His reign marks the French transition from a charismatic monarchy – which could all but collapse in an incompetent reign – to a bureaucratic kingdom, a move, under a certain historical reading, towards modernity.

Philip married queen Joan of Navarre (1271–1305) on August 16, 1284. The primary administrative benefit of this was the inheritance of Joan in Champagne and Brie, which were adjacent to the royal demesne in Ile-de-France and became thus effectively united to the king’s own lands, forming an expansive area. During the reigns of Joan herself, and her three sons (1284–1328), these lands belonged to the person of the king; but by 1328 they had become so entrenched in the royal domain that king Philip VI of France (who was not an heir of Joan) switched lands with the then rightful heiress, Joan II of Navarre, with the effect that Champagne and Brie remained part of the royal demesne and Joan received compensation with lands in western Normandy.

The Kingdom of Navarre in the Pyrenees was not so important to contemporary interests of the French crown. It remained in personal union 1284–1329, after which it went its separate way. Philip gained Lyon for France in 1312.

War with the English

Homage of Edward I (kneeling) to Philip IV (seated). As Duke of Aquitaine, Edward was a vassal to the French king.

As Duke of Aquitaine, the English king Edward I was a vassal to Philip, and had to pay him homage. Following the Fall of Acre in 1291 however, the former allies started to show dissent.

In 1293, following a naval incident between the Normans and the English, Philip summoned Edward to the French court, but the latter, busy harassing Scotland, refused to appear. Philip used this pretext to strip Edward of all his possessions in France, thereby initiating hostilities with England.

The outbreak of hostilities with England in 1294 was the inevitable result of the competitive expansionist monarchies, triggered by a secret Franco-Scottish pact of mutual assistance against Edward I, who was Philip’s brother-in-law, having married Philip’s sister Marguerite; inconclusive campaigns for the control of Gascony to the southwest of France were fought in 1294–98 and 1300–03. Philip gained Guienne but was forced to return it. The search for income to cover military expenditures set its stamp on Philip’s reign and his contemporary reputation. Pursuant to the terms of the Treaty of Paris (1303), the marriage of Philip’s daughter Isabella to the Prince of Wales, heir of Philip’s enemy, celebrated at Boulogne, 25 January 1308, was meant to seal a peace; instead it would produce an eventual English claimant to the French throne itself, and the Hundred Years War.

Drive for income

See also: Coinage of Philip IV of France

Petit royal d’or, gold coin minted under Philip IV. Cabinet des Médailles.

In the shorter term, Philip arrested Jews so he could seize their assets to accommodate the inflated costs of modern warfare: he expelled them from his French territories on July 22, 1306 (see The Great Exile of 1306). His financial victims included Lombard bankers and rich abbots. He was condemned by his enemies in the Catholic Church for his spendthrift lifestyle. He debased the coinage. When he also levied taxes on the French clergy of one half their annual income, he caused an uproar within the Roman Catholic Church and the papacy, prompting Pope Boniface VIII to issue the Bull Clericis laicos, forbidding the transference of any church property to the French Crown and prompting a drawn-out diplomatic battle with the King. In order to condemn the pope, Philip convoked an assembly of bishops, nobles and grand bourgeois of Paris, a precursor to the Etats Généraux that appeared for the first time during his reign, a measure of the professionalism and order that his ministers were introducing into government. Philip emerged victorious, after having sent his agent William Nogaret to arrest Boniface at Anagni, when the French archbishop Bertrand de Goth was elected pope as Clement V and the official seat of the papacy moved to Avignon, an enclave surrounded by French territories, commencing the captive Avignon Papacy.

In Flanders

He suffered a major embarrassment when an army of 2,500 noble men-at-arms (Knights and Squires) and 4,000 infantry he sent to suppress an uprising in Flanders was defeated in the Battle of the Golden Spurs near Kortrijk on 11 July 1302. Philip reacted with energy to the humiliation and personally defeated the Flemings at Mons-en-Pévèle two years later. Finally, in 1305, Philip forced the Flemish to accept a harsh peace treaty after his success at the battle of Mons-en-Pévèle; the peace exacted heavy reparations and humiliating penalties, and added the rich cloth cities of Lille and Douai, sites of major cloth fairs, to the royal territory. Béthune, first of the Flemish cities to yield, was granted to Mahaut, Countess of Artois, whose two daughters, to secure her fidelity, were married to Philip’s two sons.

Suppression of the Knights Templar

Philip was hugely in debt to the Knights Templar, a monastic military order who had been acting as bankers for some two hundred years. As the popularity of the Crusades had decreased, support for the Order had waned, and Philip used a disgruntled complaint against the Order as an excuse to disband the entire organization, so as to free himself from his debts. On Friday, October 13, 1307, hundreds of Knights Templar in France were simultaneously arrested by agents of Philip the Fair, to be later tortured into admitting heresy in the Order. The Knights Templar were supposedly answerable only to the Pope, but Philip used his influence over Clement V, who was largely his pawn, to disband the organization. Pope Clement did attempt to hold proper trials, but Philip used the previously forced confessions to have many Templars burned at the stake before they could mount a proper defense.

In 1314, Philip had the last Grand Master of the Templars, Jacques de Molay, not burnt at the stake but rather roasted slowly over a fire in Paris. According to legend, de Molay cursed both Philip and Clement V from the flames, saying that he would summon them before God’s Tribunal within a year; as it turned out, both King and Pope died within the next year. The throne passed rapidly through Philip’s sons, who also died relatively young, and without producing male heirs. By 1328, his line was extinguished, and the throne had passed to the House of Valois.

Expulsion of the Jews

While King Edward ordered the Jews to leave England in 1290, Philip the Fair expelled the Jews from France in 1306, ostensibly for oppressive money-lending policies. With the Jews gone, Philip appointed royal guardians to collect the loans made by the Jews and the money quite legally passed to the Crown. The scheme did not work well. The Jews were good businessmen who kept their customers happy, while the kings’s collectors were less than tolerated. Finally, in 1315, because of the “clamour of the people”, the Jews were invited back with an offer of 12 years of guaranteed residence, free from government interference. In 1322, the Jews were expelled again by the Kings’ successor, who did not honor his commitment.

Tour de Nesle affair

In 1314, the daughters-in-law of Philip IV-Margaret of Burgundy, Queen of France Wife of Louis X; and Blanche of Burgundy wife of Charles X-were accused of adultery, and their alleged lovers (Phillipe d’Aunay and Gauthier d’Aunay) tortured, flayed and executed in what has come to be known as the Tour de Nesle Affair (French: Affaire de la tour de Nesle). A third daughter-in-law, Jeanne II, Countess of Burgundy, wife of Philip V, was accused of knowledge of the affairs.

Crusades and diplomacy with Mongols

Main article: Franco-Mongol alliance

Philip had various contacts with the Mongol power in the Middle East, including reception of the embassy of the Turkic/Mongol monk Rabban Bar Sauma. Bar Sauma presented an offer of a Franco-Mongol alliance with Arghun of the Mongol Ilkhanate in Baghdad. Arghun was seeking to join forces between the Mongols and the Europeans, against their common enemy the Muslim Mamluks. In return, Arghun offered to return Jerusalem to the Christians, once it was re-captured from the Muslims. Philip seemingly responded positively to the request of the embassy, by sending one of his noblemen, Gobert de Helleville, to accompany Bar Sauma back to Mongol lands.

There was further correspondence between Arghun and Philip in 1288 and 1289, outlining potential military cooperation. However, Philip never actually pursued such military plans.

In April 1305, the new Mongol ruler Oljeitu sent letters to Philip, the Pope, and Edward I of England. He again offered a military collaboration between the Christian nations of Europe and the Mongols against the Mamluks. European nations attempted another Crusade, but were delayed, and it never took place.

In April 4, 1312, another Crusade was promulgated at the Council of Vienne. In 1313, Philip “took the cross”, making the vow to go on a Crusade in the Levant, thus responding to Pope Clement V’s call. He was, however, warned against leaving by Enguerrand de Marigny and died soon after in a hunting accident.

Death

Tomb of Philip IV in the Basilica of St Denis.

Philip IV’s rule signaled the decline of the papacy’s power from its near complete authority. His palace located on the Île de la Cité is represented today by surviving sections of the Conciergerie. He suffered a cerebral ictus during a hunt at Pont-Sainte-Maxence (Forest of Halatte) and died a few weeks later in Fontainebleau, where he was born. He is buried in the Basilica of St Denis. He was succeeded by his son Louis X.

Issue

The children of Philip IV and Jeanne of Navarre were:

1. Marguerite (1288–c.1294)
2. Louis X - (October, 1289–June 5, 1316)
3. Blanche (died c.1294)
4. Philip V - (1292/93–January 3, 1322)
5. Charles IV - (1294–February 1, 1328)
6. Isabelle - (c. 1295–August 23, 1358)
7. Robert (born 1297, died 1308 at St-Germaine-en-Laye)

All three of his sons reaching adulthood would become kings of France, and his surviving daughter, as consort of Edward II, was queen of England.

Notes

This article’s citation style may be unclear. The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of citation, footnoting, or external linking.

1. ^ “Ce n’est ni un homme ni une bête. C’est une statue.“
2. ^ ^{a b} Les Rois de France, p.50
3. ^ Coins minted under Philip IV
4. ^ Contemporary chroniclers were all monks.
5. ^ Malcolm Barber, The Trial of the Templars. Cambridge University Press, 1978. ISBN 0-521-45727-0.
6. ^ National Geographic, The Fake Bible Part 1: The Knights Templar
7. ^ Charles Adams, Fight, Flight, Fraud The Story of Taxation, 1982
8. ^ Source
9. ^ The Monks of Kublai Khan
10. ^ Source
11. ^ Mostaert and Cleaves, pp. 56-57, Source
12. ^ Jean Richard, “Histoire des Croisades”, p.485

References

• Joseph Strayer. The reign of Philip the Fair, 1980. Representing over 30 years of research, considered one of the most comprehensive medieval biographies of any monarch.
• Favier, Jean Philippe le Bel
• Goyau, Georges (1913). “Philip IV (the Fair)”. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12004a.htm. 
• Grandes Chroniques de France
• A.H. Newman, in Philip Schaff, The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge
• Knights Templar History and Mythology
• Schein, Sylvia (October 1979). “Gesta Dei per Mongolos 1300. The Genesis of a Non-Event”. The English Historical Review 94 (373): 805–819. doi:10.1093/ehr/XCIV.CCCLXXIII.805. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0013-8266(197910)94:373%3C805:GDPM1T%3E2.0.CO;2-8. 

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No Refunds
Starring	Doug Stanhope
Release date(s)	August 14, 2007
Running time	70 Minutes
Language	English

No Refunds is Doug Stanhope’s third stand-up DVD. Recorded at the Gotham Comedy Club in New York, NY on March 12, 2007. The performance originally aired August 3, 2007 on Showtime.

Audio options: Dolby Digital 5.1 and 2.0.

Chapters

1. “Introduction”
2. “Sanitized Generation”
3. “Carnival Head”
4. “Drugs for a Brave New Cubicle”
5. “Will Work for Vagina”
6. “Secret of My Success”
7. “Funnier Drunk”
8. “Live for Your Sins”
9. “Jew Jew Jew Jew Jew”
10. “Died Right on Time”
11. “National Pride”
12. “Einstein Was an Immigrant Worker”
13. “Fear for Your Own Safety”
14. “Rampant on the Internet”
15. “My Fetus Is a Centerfold”
16. “Fuck the Yankees!”
17. “End Credits”

Bonus Features

The DVD features three bonus clips: “Laugh If It’s Funny” (deleted footage from the beginning of the show, “Doug Fucks Up” (bloopers from the DVD’s introduction), and “What the Fuck Is He Talking About?” (outtakes from the show).

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A privacy policy is a legal document that disclose how a party retains, processes, discloses, and purges customer’s data. Such examples could be the instance of a website providing information about the use of personal information - particularly personal information collected via the website - by the website owner. Privacy policies usually contain details of what personal information is collected, how the personal information may be used, the persons to whom the personal information may be disclosed, the security measures taken to protect the personal information, and whether the website uses cookies and/or web bugs.

The exact contents of a privacy policy will depend upon the applicable law. For instance, there are significant differences between the EU data protection and US data privacy laws.

Some websites also define their privacy policies using P3P or Internet Content Rating Association (ICRA), allowing browsers to automatically assess the level of privacy offered by the site.

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Manualism

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Manualism may refer to:

• Manualism and oralism, a philosophy in the education of the deaf
• Manualism (hand music)

This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

Retrieved from “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manualism”
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